RUDN Journal of Philosophy

This article explores how Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865-1935), one of the most influential figures of the Islamic reform movement at the turn of the twentieth century, received Ibn Khaldun’s historical and sociological ideas in his political and theological thought. Through a close reading of Rida’s major works, particularly the treatise The Caliphate, or the Supreme Imamate (1923), as well as related articles in al-Manar, the study reveals how pivotal Khaldunian concepts, such as ʿasabiyya, the distinction between badw and ḥaḍar, and the cyclical theory of dynastic rule, were reinterpreted within the framework of late-colonial discussions on Islamic governance and Arab leadership. Despite his explicit criticism of certain arguments in the Muqaddima, most notably Ibn Khaldun’s justification of Umayyad rule through tribal solidarity, Rida consistently relied on the Khaldunian analytical framework to articulate his views on the legitimacy of the caliphate, the Arabs' privileged position within the umma, and acceptable forms of Muslim political authority.By turning to Ibn Khaldun as a non-theological source of Islamic rationality, Rida could integrate his project into the language of European social science and maintain a claim to the authenticity of the Islamic tradition. Theoretically, the article builds on Talal Asad’s conception of Islam as a discursive tradition and S.N. Eisenstadt’s theory of multiple modernities. This allows us to view Islamic reformism as more than just a delayed imitation of Western modernization; it is also a distinct way of constructing modernity within a religious framework. The author argues that Rida’s engagement with Ibn Khaldun is one example of “the secular” emerging within Islamic thought. The appeal to Khaldun’s pragmatic rationalism contributes to the secularization of political language in Islamic discourse, turning Islamic reformism into a modern political ideology.

The research is devoted to study Russian Muslim scholars’ discussions on ways to reform the Muslim community in the beginning of the 20th century. The relevance of the topic relates to the need of comprehensive coverage of Russian Muslim thinkers’ views on reforms of Islamic community in the pre-Revolutionary Russia. The author argues that the Russian Muslim reformism was inhomogeneous phenomenon. It is alleged that there was more moderate Islamic reformism. The research examines some treatises of the prominent Islamic reformist Rizaitdin Fahretdin and Islamic religious scholar, Sufi and pedagogue Khalil Rahimov. The paper reconstructs the debate in absentia between Rizaitdin Fahretdin and Khalil Rahimov about the ways of reform of various aspects of Muslim society, which was sparked by the publication of Rizaitdin Fahretdin’s books about the need to reform Muslim society. The research shows that Rizaitdin Fahretdin supports the need for Muslims to access to contemporary knowledge and social institutes of European countries, the emancipation of women, etc. In contrast, Khalil Rahimov advocates for moderate policy to improve the lives of Muslims. The research analyzes their disputes on fundamental religious issues and ways of development of the Muslim community. Both thinkers are guided by the idea of reform ( islah ) of Islam when it is going supposed downhill. In conclusion the author deals with the prospects of the development of Muslim reformism.

The study examines the intellectual landscape of contemporary Islamic thought, with a particular focus on the North African (Maghreb) region and the influential precursors of modern reformism. The inquiry begins by addressing the historical encounters between the Islamic world and Western modernity, analyzing the shift from classical metaphysics to contemporary discourses centered on hermeneutics, civilizational analysis, and the “Islamization of Knowledge.” Central to this foundational discourse is the figure of Jamal al-Din al-Afghānī, whose political activism and critique of naturalism (materialism) laid the groundwork for modern Islamic revivalism by diagnosing the root causes of civilizational inertia. The core of the research evaluates the distinct methodological inquiries of Maghrebi thinkers who seek to transcend the stagnation of the post-classical era. It analyzes the “Realist Personalism” and “Tomorrowism” of Aziz Lahbābī, alongside Malek Bennabī’s seminal theory of “colonisability,” which identifies internal social conditions as the primary catalyst for external subjugation. The study further explores the massive deconstruction of the “Arab / Islamic Reason” spearheaded by Mohammed Abed al-Jabrī through his epistemological triad - Beyan, Irfan, and Burhan - and Mohammed Arkoun’s “Applied Islamology,” which utilizes structuralist tools to dismantle the “mythical closure” of the tradition. Furthermore, the research delves into the radical “Islamic Left” of Hassan Hanafī, which proposes an anthropological turn in theology, and the linguistic hermeneutics of Nasr Hamid Abū Zayd, who defines revelation as a “cultural product.” These historicist and rationalist projects are contrasted with the ethical-traditionalist counter-critique of Tāhā Abderrahmane, who rejects Western-centric methodologies in favor of an indigenous modernity rooted in “Supported Reason.” A critical theme of the study is the analysis of the methodological crisis surrounding the “Period of Codification” ( al-Tedwin ). It explores how contemporary thinkers attempt to bypass centuries of traditional accumulation to establish a direct, rational link with the founding texts. By analyzing the dynamic dialectic between Asala (Authenticity / Tradition) and Mu’asara (Modernity), this paper identifies the pivotal role of historicist and rationalist methodologies in diagnosing civilizational decline. Ultimately, it proposes that a modern Islamic renaissance depends on the successful synthesis of ethical authenticity and critical rationalism, transitioning the Islamic world from an “object” of Western modernization to a “subject” of its own historical development.

The study examines the potential intellectual interplay between Plato’s philosophy and the teachings of the Prophet Moses, focusing on the mechanisms of reception and intertextuality. By analyzing historical, cultural, and textual parallels, the research investigates whether Plato’s works reflect influences from Hebrew traditions or vice versa. The comparative analysis centers on key doctrinal themes, including conceptions of the divine, cosmological narratives involving the creation of dual worlds, and anthropological models exemplified by the tripartite composition of the soul. The study employs a critical framework to assess claims of direct influence, acknowledging the lack of concrete evidence for a translated Torah in Plato’s time, while exploring alternative pathways, such as oral transmission, during his travels to Egypt and Sicily. Notable parallels include Plato’s “ Demiurge ” in Timaeus and the monotheistic Creator in Genesis, as well as shared motifs of spiritual ascent and ethical dualism. The analysis also addresses critiques of the “Greek Miracle” narrative, which historically marginalized Eastern contributions to philosophy. Scholars like Numenius and early Christian thinkers (e.g., Justin Martyr) are cited to contextualize debates about cross-cultural borrowing. While the study refrains from asserting direct intertextuality, it underscores the significance of overlapping ideas in challenging Eurocentric historiography. Ultimately, the research proposes that these parallels reflect a broader, interconnected intellectual heritage rather than unilateral influence. It advocates for a nuanced understanding of how philosophical and religious traditions evolve through dialogue, even in the absence of documented contact. This framework invites further exploration of antiquity’s multicultural exchanges and their role in shaping foundational Western thought.

The paper analyzes the origins, achievements, and methodology of Ch. Valikhanov as a researcher of the nomadic civilization of the Eurasian steppes. Valikhanov (1835-1865) was a prominent Kazakh scholar, ethnographer, and geographer who was the first to systematically describe the lives of Central Asian nomads. His multi-volume work (travel diaries, notes on nomads, descriptions of epics and rituals) became the foundation for understanding the ethnogenesis and sociopolitical structure of the Kazakhs and related peoples. Introductory expeditions (Isyk-Kul 1856, Kashgar 1858-1859, and others) provided data on the tribal composition, daily life, folklore, and law of nomadic peoples, and the use of oral traditions and epics (for example, the translation of a fragment of “Manas”) made it possible for the first time to present nomadic culture in scholarly discourse. The report offers a structured research plan: an extensive review of sources (including Valikhanov’s five-volume “Collected Works” and archival materials), a critical review of contemporary literature, and a comprehensive comparative analysis of the approaches of Valikhanov and his contemporaries. Particular attention is given to original hypotheses regarding the role of clan-tribal organization in the formation of the “nomadic Eurasian community.” Thus, Eurasianism in its essence represents a distinctive mode of relating to the world, permeated with moral principles and capable of becoming integrative - overcoming the extremes of both West and East and synthesizing their best features.

In this studу, the аuthоr substаntiаtes а mоdel оf lоneliness аs ‘being-nоt-with-асtiоn’ bаsed оn аn аnаlуsis оf the рhilоsорhiсаl соnсeрts оf twо оutstаnding thinkers оf the 19th сenturу: L. Feuerbасh аnd K. Mаrx. The methоdоlоgiсаl bаsis оf this studу is а histоriсаl-рhilоsорhiсаl reсоnstruсtiоn grоunded in the рrinсiрle оf dуnаmiс оntоlоgу аnd the hermeneutiс methоd. The studу utilises M. Нeidegger’s terminоlоgiсаl арраrаtus tо сlаrifу the mоdаlities оf sоlitаrу being within Mаrx’s раrаdigmаtiс рersрeсtives. The wоrk exрlоres the саtegоriсаl аnd semаntiс develорment оf the соnсeрt оf sоlitude thrоugh the deсоnstruсtiоn оf the theоlоgiсаl hоrizоn in the рhilоsорhу оf L. Feuerbасh аnd its subsequent reinterрretаtiоn in the соntext оf Mаrx’s theоrу оf рrаxis. The first раrt оf the wоrk reсоnstruсts Feuerbасh’s сritique оf religiоn, within whiсh Gоd is interрreted аs аn ‘eсhо оf sоlitude’ аnd аn illusоrу рrоjeсtiоn оf the generiс essenсe. This hаs mаde it роssible tо estаblish thаt, in Feuerbасh’s соnсeрtiоn, sоlitude is understооd аs а stаte оf nоn-со-асtiоn in соmmuniсаtiоn (nоt the unitу оf I аnd Thоu). Lоneliness is оverсоme thrоugh the individuаl’s submissiоn tо the imрersоnаl роwer оf the genus, whiсh tаkes the рlасe оf the trаnsсendent Gоd. The рriсe fоr liberаtiоn frоm lоneliness is the negаtiоn оf рersоnаl being. The seсоnd раrt оf the wоrk exрlоres the Mаrxist interрretаtiоn оf lоneliness аs а being-nоt-in-асtiоn, аrising аs а соnsequenсe оf аlienаtiоn in the sрhere оf рrаxis, whiсh ensures the соnneсtiоn between humаn essenсe аnd the nаturаl wоrld. Bаsed оn this аnаlуsis, а tуроlоgу оf the multifасeted mоdаlities оf lоneliness is рrороsed, distinguishing between ‘the lоneliness оf the genius’ аs а сreаtive-соnstruсtive being-nоt-in-асtiоn саst fоrwаrd, аnd ‘the lоneliness оf the оutсаst’ аs а destruсtive-degrаding being-nоt-in-асtiоn саst bасkwаrd. Unlike existing studies, this аrtiсle рrороses а соnсeрtuаl аnd terminоlоgiсаl frаmewоrk fоr desсribing аnd exрlаining lоneliness thrоugh the саtegоrу оf асtivitу. 

The relevance of the study is determined by the existential and ethical-legal imperative to re-evaluate the concept of death in a context where traditional philosophical understandings of the end of existence as a biological phenomenon are being augmented by new categories. The aim of the research is to examine death, tracing how philosophical and ethical concepts have been transformed into legal and regulatory mechanisms (legal aspects). The methodology of this study is based on the method of materialistic dialectics, which facilitates a comprehensive examination of the phenomenon within the dynamics of its development, including its evolution and acquisition of new qualitative and quantitative characteristics. General scientific methods applied include analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction, and structural-functional methods, while specific scientific methods encompass the formal and logical, comparative legal, and comparative historical approaches. The paper traces the evolution of legal norms regulating relations death-related relationships, from the religious and philosophical doctrines of Antiquity and the Middle Ages to the secular legal positivism of the modern era. The conclusion affirms that philosophical thanatology serves as a necessary methodological foundation for law, ensuring that legal categories (legal thanatology) appropriately protect human interests within the multidimensional space of existence.

This study examines the ethical heritage of Abu Nasr al-Farabi, focusing on his doctrine of virtue and moral perfection. The research aims to reveal the socio-cultural context and humanistic orientation of al-Farabi’s ethical teachings while exploring his views on the formation of a complete and genuine individual. Special attention is given to the concept of the “Perfect Man” ( Insan al-Kamil ), a key element of Eastern peripatetic philosophy. The study analyzes al-Farabi’s philosophy of the “Virtuous City”, an ideal model of a just society where moral and intellectual excellence serve as the foundation of governance. The influence of al-Farabi’s thought on the ethical philosophy of the Turkic world and its relevance to contemporary moral issues in Kazakhstan is also considered. The study is based on primary sources, including al-Farabi’s treatises, and modern interpretations of his legacy. Through comparative, historical-philosophical, and hermeneutical methods, the research highlights intersections between al-Farabi’s teachings and broader moral-ethical norms. The findings underscore the significance of al-Farabi’s philosophical ideas in shaping contemporary Kazakhstani cultural values and their continued relevance in discussions on ethical development and social harmony.

The question of how to decolonize philosophy has moved from rhetorical consensus to methodological urgency. This study addresses the lack of operational procedures in decolonial thought by examining philosophical methods developed in Latin America and Africa. In the Latin American context, we argue that anthropophagic thought, formulated by Oswald de Andrade in the Cannibalist Manifesto (1928), offers a promising methodological response. We reconstruct this method through four procedural axes - critical appropriation, the dialectic of assimilation and rupture, the valorization of subaltern knowledges, and epistemic irony - and apply them in five steps to Romulo Gallegos’s novel Dona Barbara. In the African context, we examine two leading candidates: Jonathan Chimakonam’s conversational method (CM), grounded in Ezumezu logic, and Kwasi Wiredu’s conceptual decolonisation (CD). Through critical assessment, we argue that CD, understood as a philosophical sensibility attuned to the colonial conditioning of conceptual frameworks, best satisfies the demands of a decolonial method. Our theoretical framework draws on Quijano’s coloniality of power, Mignolo’s coloniality of knowledge, Lugones’s coloniality of gender, Wiredu’s conceptual decolonisation, and Chimakonam’s Ezumezu logic. We conclude that decolonial method must be plural, context-sensitive, and responsive to distinct intellectual histories. Whereas Latin American thought locates methodological experimentation in the novel, African philosophy develops its decolonial impulse primarily through internal disciplinary reflection. Despite these differences, both traditions converge on a shared insight: to decolonize philosophy is to engage critically with colonial legacies - devouring, repairing, and transforming them from within.

Political legitimacy possesses an irreducibly emotional dimension that proceduralist and recognition-theoretic accounts systematically fail to capture. A society that maintains procedural correctness while generating widespread psychological suffering is substantively illegitimate regardless of its institutional achievements. Drawing on Max Scheler’s phenomenology of sympathy and on the distinction between organic and formal communities, this paper develops an account of emotional legitimacy, which requires that a political order manifest genuine care for its members’ wellbeing rather than mere respect for their procedural rights or formal status. The argument engages critically with three positions in contemporary political philosophy: Habermasian proceduralism, which subordinates ethical life to moral principle; Honnethian recognition theory, which inadequately distinguishes recognition from care; and Williamsian political realism, which correctly identifies the priority of politics but leaves underspecified the substantive emotional conditions of legitimate order. The widespread epidemic of mental health crises in procedurally democratic societies constitutes evidence that these societies fail to meet the emotional conditions of genuine political authority. This failure is analysed through the distinction between character-based and action-based evaluation of persons, which carries direct implications for how care, justice, and belonging can be coherently theorised. The paper concludes with constructive proposals for a politics of genuine

In twentieth-century pragmatist thought, a conflict emerged between two epistemological orientations, expressed through the metaphors of coping with (interaction) and copy (representation). This work examines the reductionist approach to resolving this conflict. The starting point is Richard Rorty’s philosophy, which, alongside radical constructivism, embraces the metaphor of coping with while rejecting copy as an explanation for cognitive activity. However, the complete rejection of copy is hardly feasible: we demonstrate why Rorty’s model, like any other that absolutizes the constructive, instrumentalist aspect of cognition, contains a hidden form of asserting the real. In its attempt to escape metaphysical heritage, relativist thinking forms its own “exhausted realism”. Following pragmatist reasoning, we describe, drawing on examples from enactivism, three ways in which the “real” impacts our constructive activities, considered both in passive and active terms. Together, these three arguments highlight the practical inadequacy of anti-representationalism, which is further exacerbated by Rorty’s specific understanding of the practice-language relationship. After examining some paradoxical consequences of his interpretation, related to the underdevelopment of the category of practice and the elimination of pre-linguistic forms of experience, we proceed to justify the emergence of such a solution as the absolutization of coping with . This involves the classic opposition between “knowledge-how” and “knowledge-that”. These not only reflect two different tasks facing human cognition but also two modes of legitimizing knowledge. The attainment of certainty occurs both through the satisfaction of practical interests and through the construction of accurate descriptions that reveal the essence of “what is” in the world. Prioritizing one of these ways is inevitable in the course of cognition, depending on the task at hand. However, given the problems discussed in the article, this prioritization cannot be final: coping is structurally linked to copy , just as practice is linked to reality.

The relevance of the research is determined by rethinking of the role of Indian philosophy and yoga in the life of modern humans. The purpose is to identify the methodological function of the philosophy of yoga in understanding the thinking in the context of observational philosophy of A.M. Pyatigorsky. The study is based on four lectures that Pyatigorsky gave in London in 1994, and then revised and published in Riga in 2002. The lectures appeared in the book “Thinking and Observation. Four Lectures on Observational Philosophy” (Riga, 2002). Naturally, this material is considered in the context of the philosophical work of Pyatigorsky (and M.K. Mamardashvili), as well as treatises on the philosophy of yoga and Western studies of Indian philosophy and yoga practices. The method used in this research is the interpretation of philosophical works of Pyatigorsky, as well as the fundamental texts of the Indian yoga tradition (The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Hatha Yoga Pradipika of Svatmarama), which contains analysis and reconstruction. Methodologically, the interpretation is in the scientific and humanitarian field, organic for Pyatigorsky, i.e. in the sphere of structural-semiotic and phenomenological ideas, the actual observational philosophy of thinking, as well as in the sense of psychological teachings of P.D. Uspensky and G.I. Gurdjieff, in which Pyatigorsky showed interest. At the same time, the author of the research is interested in the search for a new methodology adequate for studying texts and traditions of Indian philosophy and spiritual practices. The results of the study are expressed in the definition of the methodological role of yoga in observing the thinking of Pyatigorsky. The philosopher gives a fundamental characterization of yoga as the observation of thinking and distances himself from it, warning that his philosophy is not yoga. For him, yoga is a possible position in relation to which his own philosophy is determined. Pyatigorsky uses yoga in his concept instrumentally and methodologically, but without turning to it, observational philosophy would be impossible. Still, from the position of the author of the research, observational philosophy can be considered as a kind of jnana yoga. This reflection, which incorporates the phenomenology and philosophy of yoga (it could be called the “phenomenology of yoga”), represents an important moment in the history of thinking and self-awareness.

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